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In 2016, for the first time, more bicycles than cars made journeys around the city over the course of that year. But following grassroots campaigns to change policies and streets, including replacing car parking with safe, separated bike lanes, Copenhagen has increased its biking share of all trips from 10% in 1970 to 35% today. Half a century ago, the Danish capital was dominated by cars. So each kilometer traveled where a car is replaced by a bicycle generates €1.35 (£1.12) of social benefits - of which only a few cents would be saved by switching from a fossil-fuelled to an electric-powered car, according to this analysis. Copenhagen, for example, has calculated that whereas each kilometer cycled benefits society to the tune of €0.64 (53 pence), each kilometer driven incurs a net loss of -€0.71 (-59p), when impacts on individual wellbeing (physical and mental health, accidents, traffic) and the environment (climate, air, and noise pollution) are accounted for.
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So the driving habits of a minority impose high costs on society, and this is especially true incities. In contrast, nearly 90% of the highest-income households own at least one car. In the UK, women, young and older people, those from minority communities and disabled people are concentrated in the lowest-income households, of which 40% do not have a car. While cars are sometimes necessary for people’s mobility and social inclusion needs - not least those with disabilities - car-centric cities particularly disadvantage the already marginalized.